Andragogy

Andragogy Theory

Andragogy theory is the adult learning theory being investigated in this study. A deep understanding of the theory would be helpful in following individual steps of the study. This section included the background of andragogy theory to explore the original of the term andragogy and its meaning. The assumptions of the theory were discussed and examined to differentiate andragogy principles from the previous pedagogy principles. The sections follow were about how andragogy being adopted widely, the most current study regarding the theory, and the advantage of andragogy.  

Background of andragogy theory. Andragogy, which is “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1970, p. 43), is considered by many to be the best-known adult-learning theory (Chan, 2010). German teacher Alexander Kapp coined the term andragogy in 1833, based on Plato’s educational philosophy (Nottingham Andragogy Group, 1983), but it does not appear in the United States. The term finally gained favor in the United States in 1927 when andragogy was popularized through the work of adult educational researchers Martha Anderson and Edward Linderman (Davenport & Davenport, 1985). the concept did not receive much development over the ensuing decades until American adult educator, Malcolm S. Knowles (1913-1997), reintroduced the term in the United States in 1968 with more consistency, technological direction, and coherence to the practice of adult education (Knowles, 1970). Knowles blended andragogy with other adult-education concepts with which he had extensive prior knowledge and experience (Henschke, 2011). The theory included defining attributes such as the self-direction and autonomy of adult learners and teachers as facilitators of learning rather than presenters of content. Knowles successfully tested and refined andragogy theory and design across a broad spectrum in numerous settings such as higher education, religious education, corporate, workplace, industry, business, healthcare, professions, government, elementary, secondary, and remedial education (Henschke, 2011).

Andragogy theory assumptions. andragogy involves six assumptions about adult learners. Adults have established the self-concept of responsibility for their choices and are ready for self-directed learning. They have a strong readiness to learn when the course material is relevant to them. Adults also have an intrinsic motivation to learn. They also have a problem-focused orientation to learning such that they want to use new knowledge and skills immediately. Regarding to subjects, adults need to know what and why they want to learn before going forward to study it. Finally, adults have prior experiences in which they can draw into the classroom to facilitate learning (Knowles, 1970; Knowles et al., 2015). Andragogy is also a professional and intentionally directed action that is intended to bring about a desired transformation in a mature individual (Knowles et al., 2015). To explain the way andragogy works, Knowles began by introducing four characteristics of the concept: “experienced learners, performance-centered, self-directed, and readiness to learn” (Knowles, 1970, p. 43). Knowles (1990) later added internal motivation and need-to-know to the list. As the theory evolved, literature on andragogy tends to include six overarching components of how adults learn most successfully, which are summarized in Table 1 and contrasted with principles of pedagogy in the following sections.

Table 1
Adult Learner Characteristics

Need to know. The first characteristic of andragogy is the need to know. Adult learners need to know what they will learn, why they need to learn that subject, and how to learn effectively (Knowles, 1984). As people mature, they tend to move toward problem-centered learning rather than subject-centered learning, as is the case with younger learners (Keengwe & Georgina, 2012). Adult learners will be more task-oriented and life-focused (Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Moore, 2010). Frequently, a goal-oriented need at work or home leads to the decision to return to school (Cheng, Wang, Yang, Kinshuk, & Peng, 2011; Karge, Phillips, Dodson, & McCabe, 2011). Tough (1979) indicated that when adults study a subject they need to know on their own, they usually put energy and effort into trying to benefit from the learning. Facilitators can help adult learners by making them aware of the benefits of the subjects they are about to learn. For example, adult learners who choose to take an accounting class will satisfy that need to know after the instructor shows them how and why even big firms sometimes fail in the absence of rigorous bookkeeping.

Learner’s self-concept.The second characteristic of adult learners is self-concept—that adults are responsible for their own lives and decisions and they expect others to see them as possessing the ability to be independent, autonomous, and self-directing (Chan 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011). In contrast, the pedagogical assumption is that learners are dependent personalities, which leaves the responsibility of when, how, and what to teach solely to the teacher (or school system) (Blondy, 2007; Cross, 1981; Knowles et al., 2015). However, as people mature, they change from being dependent to being more self-directed (Ingram, 2000;  Knowles et al., 2015; Thompson & Deis, 2004). This characteristic also means that adult learners are responsible for their learning (Blaschke, 2012; Harper & Ross, 2011; Keengwe & Georgina, 2012; McGlone, 2011; Minter, 2011). Because adults are more autonomous learners, conflicts can occur if instructors treat them in a dependent fashion. Educators who adhere to the self-concept principle of andragogy tend to create learning settings in which they serve as facilitators in their students’ self-directed learning (Knowles et al., 2015).

Learner’s experience. The third characteristic of andragogy is the experience the learner has accumulated from prior life and work and brings to the learning setting; indeed, the role of an adult’s former experiences can be an addition to his or her education (and to fellow learners). Pedagogy assumes that children have limited experiences so that they must rely on the experience of their teachers (Blondy, 2007; Cross, 1981; Knowles et al., 2015; Taylor & Kroth, 2009). In contrast, adults simply have more experiences from which to draw upon than younger learners. While younger individuals certainly do differ regarding personality, temperament, and other inherent traits, there will be significantly more heterogeneity in any adult group regarding needs, interests, motivation, learning style, and goals than among youth groups (Knowles et al., 2015). This prior experience can be useful in integrating what adults already know known with new learning processes (Green & Ballard, 2011; Marques, 2012). Finally, experience can be useful to support and expand the self-concept of the learner (Fidishun, 2011; Harper & Ross, 2011). In short, an adult’s range of experiences will directly or indirectly influence learning outcomes.

Readiness to learn. As people mature, they become more interested in learning subjects that have immediate benefit to their personal lives or their careers. In contrast, pedagogy assumes that children tend to learn under pressure from the teacher or from parents and must do so to pass a class (Blondy, 2007; Cross, 1981; Knowles et al., 2015). Andragogy, in contrast, assumes that adults come ready to learn what they need to know, and they learn so that they can keep up with their real-life circumstances (Ingram, 2000; Knowles et al., 2015). Adults are ready to improve what they can do and ready to upgrade what they want to know to manage real-life situations (Clapper, 2010; Kenner & Weinerman, 2011; Marques, 2012). Adults will show interest in subjects that will benefit them (McGrath, 2009; Moore, 2010). Mainly, they will learn new subjects with purpose (Blaschke, 2012; Harper & Ross 2011). Knowles et al. (2015) emphasized that the particular stage of the learner’s development is critical to learning. For example, a high school girl at the sophomore level is not ready to study marital relations and nutrition for an infant. However, she would be ready to learn those subjects after graduation should she marry and decide to have children. Readiness to learn can be the result of career counseling, simulation exercises, and introduction to the model of high performance (Knowles et al., 2015).

Orientation to learning. The fifth characteristic of adult learners is their orientation to learning, which is performance-centered (Knowles, 1970). Pedagogy assumes that children learn based on the subjects they are told they need, while andragogy assumes adults are life-centered and that they learn subjects that help them to address life issues (Knowles et al., 2015). Adults are different from children in their orientation to learning, because children have no choice in what content is presented to them in elementary school (in contrast, students in high school during the 21^st century do have some degree of flexibility). In other words, children have a subject-centered orientation. According to the concept of orientation to learn, learning will be more effective when the adult learner can implement new knowledge to apply it to real-life problems. Adults lean toward topics that will improve their lives—whether that may be in a professional realm or simply to gain more knowledge (Knowles, 1995; Knowles et al., 2015). adult learning is more task-centered, problem-centered, or life-centered (Knowles et al., 2015). Adults are more interested in learning once they recognize how learning will benefit them to solve existing problems, or it will provide them the needed knowledge to perform specific tasks. They will perform better in learning when the new skills, values, knowledge, understanding, and attitudes connect with real-life circumstances (Knowles et al., 2015).

Motivation to learn. Motivation is the final characteristic of adult learners. Pedagogy assumes that motivation to learn is primarily external, such as learning for the grade, learning for teacher approval, or to respond to parental pressure (Blondy, 2007; Cross, 1981; Knowles et al., 2015). In the case of adult learners, some external motivations include a higher paycheck, better employment, and the possibility for promotion. internal motivations such as enhanced quality of life, job satisfaction, and self-esteem tend to be more enduring drivers of motivation as they come from within rather than externally in the form of some types or reward or the avoidance of punishment (Blaschke, 2012; Chan 2010; Clapper, 2010; Harper & Ross, 2011; Kargeet al., 2011; Minter, 2011; Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011). Although adults may be interested in personal development and growth, they frequently face obstacles such as time constraints, negative self-concept, and programs that do not incorporate the principles of andragogy (Tough, 1979).

Eight instructional process design elements of andragogy. Andragogical process model plays a critical role in adult learning. Researchers on andragogy identified some significant differences between the andragogical process model for learning and the traditional model for learning. In the traditional model that is typically implemented in the K-12 setting, the teacher decides what to teach, arranges the subjects in advance, and selects the best method to transmit the knowledge to students. The andragogical model for learning is concerned with providing resources and procedures to help students to obtain the skills and information they need. The andragogy model stresses process, while the traditional learning model emphasizes content. As listed in Table 2, the eight design elements of the andragogical process model are preparing the learner, setting the learning climate, engaging in mutual planning, diagnosing learning needs, setting the learning objectives, designing learning plans, constructing learning activities, and evaluation of the learning (Knowles, 1984). Adopting and integrating these eight design elements into the learning setting will enhance the practice of adult education (Holton et al., 2009).

Table 2
Andragogy Instructional Design Elements

Preparing the learner.In the preparing-the-learner stage of the andragogical learning process, it is essential to guide adult learners in the learning how to learn the concept, because it may be unknown to many of them. This process step is undergirded by the self-directed learning concept of the andragogical learning model. Regarding the actual mechanics of preparing the learning, Knowles et al. (2012) suggested providing a brief description of the differences between reactive and proactive learning, identifying the resources of all learners and building relationships among them, and assigning a short project in applying the abilities of proactive learning.

Setting the climate. A climate that is conducive to learning is necessary to stimulate and support learning. A positive emotional climate enhances both learning and personal competency (Materna, 2007).In pedagogy, the approach to learning is much more formalized and the instructor is more authority-oriented because learners follow instructions without questioning whether they are valid or not. The climate for adult learners is different because adults are on a more equal footing with instructors. As Knowles and coworkers (2015) emphasized, the climate for adult learning should be relaxed, trusting, warm, collaborative, supportive, open, human, and mutually respectful. Even environmental considerations as simple as temperature control, available restrooms, comfortable seats, and enough lighting all contribute to a better learning experience.

Engaging in mutual planning. Traditionally, the role of planning has been the responsibility of teachers. The K-12 teacher is the one who does all the planning, while in the andragogical model, learners are included in the planning process. Andragogy supports the self-direction of adult learners by proving a mechanism for mutual planning by both facilitator and learner. Andragogy’s approach to learning in planning promotes better commitment from the learners. a mechanism or process for mutual planning should be developed and implemented when devising a learning activity or course (Knowles et al., 2015).

Diagnosing learning needs. In diagnosing learning needs, building a model of preferred performance, competencies, or behavior is a useful tool that should be accomplished via a process of mutual assessment (Knowles et al., 2015). This approach does not occur in the elementary school classroom wherein the teacher assumes that his or her students are mostly empty vessels of knowledge that he or she can fill. Knowles et al. (2015) suggested that the diagnostic process for adult learners should involve three phases: Building a framework that indicates the tools or knowledge required for a specific performance model, incorporating analytical experiences whereby the learner can gauge his or her present status with respect to the performance model, and assisting the learner to identify any gaps between existing competencies and the model so that the learner can be motivated by the educational growth needed to attain a learning goal.

Setting learning objectives. The setting of learning objectives is the process of mutually planning learning and activities according to the needs of the learner, the facilitator, the institution, and the society. Objectives are meaningless if the terminal behaviors are not clear, not observable, and not measurable. Objectives for education may indicated the desired accomplishments or the changes that the learner must achieve (Knowles et al., 2015). According to Knowles et al. (, the teacher sets the objectives in pedagogy, while an agreement by both teacher and learner sets the objectives in andragogy.

Designing the learning plan. Scholarly research devoted to the process of designing a learning plan has been influenced by behaviorists, cognitive and inquiry theorists, psychologists, and adult-education theorists. Program design, according to behaviorists, must include reinforcement so that it produces and maintains the prescribed behaviors. The inquiry and cognitive theories look at program design as arranging problems according to the stage of development and supplying the resources necessary to solve those problems (Knowles et al., 2015). Adult-education theorists tend to shape models in which they try to fix all aspects of these methodologies. Pedagogy arranges the subject matter logically, and the basis of this arrangement is the particular content necessary for the units. Conversely, andragogy arranges subject content into problem units based on the readiness of the adult learner, which is determined via self-diagnostic steps (Knowles, 1980; Tough, 1979). Facilitators of adult learning also choose the right formats for learning, gravitate toward experiential learning, and arrange a learning plan according to the learners’ readiness (Knowles, 1980). In short, the andragogical design model involves selecting problem areas that learners have acknowledged via self-diagnostic procedures and then selecting a suitable format for learning and teaching (Knowles et al., 2015).

Constructing learning activities.The andragogical approach to delivering learning activities is heavily weighted toward experiential learning and thus relies on the skill of instructor as a facilitator rather than deliverer of content. Instruction should not just promote memorization, but it should also be task oriented. In a traditional pedagogical approach, the instructor delivers the subject matter mostly by transmittal techniques such as lectures, individual assignments (reading book chapters), and homework. In contrast, the andragogical learning process relies on a much bigger toolbox of instructional approaches. Techniques such as group discussion and case studies will provide learners the opportunity to learn the subject by experiencing the complexity of the individual problem. According to Park et al. (2016), the most effective activities include independent study, inquiry projects, and the use of experiential techniques.

Conducting evaluations. The final step in the andragogical learning process is evaluation. While a teacher using a pedagogical approach is the primary evaluator and relies on standardized testing methods, class participation, homework assignments and the like—the process is more complex in adult education. Indeed, evaluation is more difficult than it seems, even for a clear and relatively simple objective such as increasing the efficiency of tasks by applying laboratory-derived principles. The difficulty is much higher when more complex tasks are involved. There are different approaches to evaluation. For instance, a mutual re-diagnosis of needs and mutual measurement of the program are more common in andragogy (Knowles et al., 2015).

This section has reviewed the differences between pedagogy and andragogy relating to the characteristics of the learner and the elements of instructional design. While the differences between the pedagogical approach and an andragogical approach may seem like two sides of the teaching coin, the influence learner characteristics and individual instructional process design elements certainly blur those edges. For example, the self-concept of the learner may not be either dependent or self-directed, but it might be somewhat self-directed or somewhat dependent. The learning climate in adult education can be a subjective issue, resulting in different learning outcomes and/or varying levels of learning satisfaction.

Support for andragogy theory. Even though a review of the literature did uncover critics of andragogy quite a few researchers and educators still consider it as the preferred theory of education for adults because of its significant contribution to the practical aspects of education for adults (Merriam & Brockett, 1997). Indeed, many view andragogy as the best approach to adult education, the most effective process to help adult learners, and the most well-known theory of adult learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Rachal, 2002). Regardless of the restraints and challenges, the six principles of andragogy have found wide application at all level of education (Knowles, 1990). The principles have also become part of the training for other professionals in fields such as business, religion, social work, nursing, law, and agriculture (Davenport & Davenport, 1985; Knowles, 1980). Furthermore, andragogy principles also have links with workforce development efforts and counseling for higher education academics (Holton et al., 2009). This linkage is important for this investigation is that Forrest and Peterson (2006) described how an andragogical approach to management education is essential for preparing students for their working environment since management students can participate in the process of planning the learning objectives that solve real-world business problems.

More recent research efforts have indicated that educators in many fields around the globe have accepted the andragogy approach in teaching and learning (Alajlan, 2015; Chan, 2010). Using evidence compiled from a review of nearly 330 documents on andragogy, Henschke (2011) argues that andragogy does support more effective forms of adult education and training. Similarly, a growing number of studies describe the implementation of andragogy theory across the world, which has led to the translation of andragogy literature into many languages and the application of andragogical approaches across many cultures and nations. It must be noted, however, that while Knowles et al. (2015) stressed that andragogy represents a viable alternative to more traditional pedagogical approaches to adult learning, it should not be considered the sole method for teaching adults. In fact, the work of Knowles and his co-researchers (2015) emphasized that andragogy work best when adjusted to fit the differences between individuals, situations, and fields.

Current research in andragogy. Several recent studies on andragogy have indicated the effectiveness of andragogy for learning outcomes in a variety of fields, settings, and with respect to certain individuals. This section begins with the synthesis of literature by Henschke and Cooper (2007), who conducted a literature synthesis on recent research on andragogy. They identified six themes or sections depicting andragogy from 330 published documents on andragogy by many authors. The themes were: (a) the evolution of the term andragogy, (b) a comparison of the American and European understanding of andragogy, (c) historical antecedents shaping the concept of andragogy, (d) practical applications of andragogy, (e) popularizing and sustaining the American worldwide concept of andragogy, and (f) theory, research, and definitions of andragogy.

Some of the significant contribution to the theory of andragogy included the studies from Carpenter-Aeby and Aeby (2013), Hussain (2013), Cox (2013), Watt (2015), Leigh et al. (2015), Alajlan (2015), and Park et al. (2016). Carpenter-Aeby and Aeby (2013) indicated that andragogy could support adult learners to develop new understanding in a way that makes sense to the learner and his or her unique learning strategy. In a related study, Hussain (2013) assessed the reflections of 468 distance learners whose course incorporated principles of andragogy. Based on questionnaire responses using a five-point Likert-type scale, the results of the study confirmed that the distance learners had a positive response to the course and their instructor. Cox (2013) conducted an exploratory qualitative research study to learn about the alignment of instructors toward pedagogical or andragogical approaches. The results indicated that those with ten or more years of teaching experience leaned toward an andragogical approach. This outcome could be the result of more exposure to adult learners, leading to an affirmation of adult learners as having a high self-concept, experience, internal motivation, and readiness to learn. The results also indicated that older instructors tend to value teaching methods based on andragogy. Watts (2015) investigated the relationship between the six adult learner characteristics, the eight instructional process design elements, and learner satisfaction among adult learners in a postsecondary online environment. The results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the six adult learner characteristics (orientation to learn, prior experience, need to know, self-directed learning, intrinsic motivation to learn, and readiness to learn) all supported prior research and theory in other settings regarding their explanatory relationship to learner satisfaction. Leigh et al. (2015) measured the contribution of the principles and design elements of andragogy to the effectiveness of training programs and course outcomes. The results of the study strongly supported that andragogical principles were evident in the implementation of the program. Alajlan (2015) investigated whether andragogy was suitable for Photoshop training by applying the six characteristics of adult learners of photography techniques to the Photoshop learning context. Alajlan successfully synthesized the six assumptions of adult learners into the context of training Photoshop to enhance learning outcomes for adult learners. Park et al. (2016) examined the relationship between the six adult learning principles and the eight instructional process design elements of andragogy theory and learner satisfaction. in a Jordan-based study designed to clarify the characteristics of employees as adult learners and to develop the best instructional methods for them. Park et al. (2016) also wanted to test the API in order evaluate its efficacy in evaluating the degree to which andragogy principles and design elements apply to adult learning practice and learner satisfaction. In short, they studied the relationships among adult learning principles and processes and learner satisfaction in a Jordanian context to assess the validity and applicability of the API. Park et al. (2016) analyzed a total of 305 responses using both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results indicated that the six assumptions of adult learners and the eight instructional process design elements demonstrated significant correlation with learner satisfaction.

In summary, andragogy is widely practiced in many fields, and it is a well-known approach for helping adult learners providing that it is tailored to specific individuals, situations, goals, and purposes of learning. The work of Knowles confirms that the characteristics of the adult learner will vary significantly based on learning goals and prior experience. Thus, implementing andragogical principles will be most effective when educators adjust it to align with the distinctiveness of the students, real-world goals, and the learning environment (Knowles et al., 2015).

            Advantages of andragogy. In comparison to other adult learning theories, andragogy has certain advantages over other theories. The notable advantage is that if offers a great deal of flexibility depending on the individuals involved and the setting in which the instruction is to take place. In addition, andragogy is definable, measurable, and evaluable. Details about these advantages are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Andragogy is flexible. As noted earlier, andragogy has faced quite a few challenges over time—principally in terms of whether it qualifies as a theory (Davenport & Davenport, 1985), and whether its underlying assumptions truly represent adult learners (Taylor & Kroth, 2009). Merriam et al. (2007), recognizing the complexity of adult learning (and the adult learner), admitted that there is no one one-size-fits-all theory of how adults learn best. Nonetheless, many have accepted andragogy as the best approach to adult education, the most effective process to help adult learners, and the most well-known adult-learning theory (Merriam et al., 2007; Rachal, 2002). The preference for andragogy as an adult learning apprach is due to its flexible practice to adapt to fit unique individuals, learning situations, and learning goals (Alajlan, 2015; Knowles et al., 2015).

Researchers can define, measure, and evaluate andragogy orientation. Davenport and Davenport (1985) pointed out that “andragogical orientation can be defined, measured, and evaluated” and “early indications are that andragogical-pedagogical orientations vary by age, sex, and other variables” (p. 185). They also indicated that “if additional research continues to confirm such distinctions, andragogy may well possess the explanatory functions associated with a fully developed theory” (p. 158). Fortunately, the API (Holton et al., 2009) has contributed significantly to the development of an instrument for measuring andragogy principles. Holton et al. (2009) introduced an initial version of the API to measure both the design elements of andragogy and its principles, which contributed greatly the development of a psychometrically sound measurement instrument. Specifically, the instrument measures five characteristics of andragogy and six process design elements. The reliabilities for the five principles are: motivation = .933, experience = .830, need to know = .760, readiness to learn = .811, and self-directedness = .739. The second version measures all six principles of andragogy and all eight elements of the design (Knowles et al., 2015). Therefore, this API instrument was determined to be highly appropriate for assessing the six andragogy characteristics of each generation in the generational cohorts, and subsequently to test whether there were any correlations to the learning outcome.